Part Nine
Japanese History and Culture

Opening Remarks
I have included this chapter as an introduction to Japan for new teachers here that have little or no knowledge concerning the culture or history. In addition to teaching English, you will be aiming at deepening cultural understanding among your students and an important part of this is showing your understanding of Japan and its uniqueness. The information here is general and can be supplemented with readings contained in the bibliography, Part Twelve.
Another way to find out more about Japanese history and culture is to ask your students. You will of course have more success in this endeavor with classes of adults that have more advanced language skills.

1. History
You certainly do not need to be an expert on Japanese history to successfully find a job as a language teacher and teach English in Japan. Still, I have included this section because of its inherent value as an aid in grounding the first time visitor's understanding of what they will find and how this resonates what came before. Also, having a historical understanding of Japan you will be able to elicit more from the students and not get too lost when and if they begin explaining a certain idea that is grounded in Japanese history. The following outline is brief and I encourage teachers to pursue this line of study further.

A. Ancient history
Early inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago are believed to have been migrants from China, Korea, Southeast Asia, and Polynesia and are thought to have made their way over land bridges or by sea. While experts are unsure of the very first people in Japan, they now believe there were inhabitants long before the pottery using peoples who were previously believed to be the first around 5000 B.C. The following two periods are the basic divisions of pre-historic Japan.
1. The Jomon period (10,000 B.C. - 300 B.C.) is sometimes broken down into Archaic Jomon (10,000 - 7,000 B.C.), Early Jomon (7,000 - 3,000 B.C.), Middle Jomon (3,000 - 2,000 B.C.), Late Jomon (2,000 - 1,000 B.C.) and Terminal Jomon (1,000 - 200 B.C.). This period is named after a stylized rope-marked pottery that was common during this time. The Jomon people were mainly gatherers, hunting and fishing when the situation permitted.
2. The Yayoi period (300 B.C. - 300 A.D.) is marked by the beginning of rice cultivation and the use of metals for tools and weapons. The name comes from the district in Tokyo where the plain type of pottery of the times was first found in 1884. These people also began taking more control over there destinies by engaging in agriculture and showed at least some spiritual inclinations.
The end of this period saw the emergence of the Yamatai koku, or Yamatai State, which was an influential federated state that appeared in the first half of the Third century A.D. and was ruled by a queen.

B. Kofun Period (300-552)
This period was marked by immigration from Korea and the keyhole shaped burial mounds that housed deceased emperors of the time. Further inclinations toward religion are noted to have some relation to the haniwa burial images that have been dated to this period. Also, the Yamato State took control of most of Japan during the early Kofun period and Japanese forces attacked Korea with varying degrees of success.

C. Azuka Period (552-646)
Culture centers in the Nara plains and Buddhism reaches Japan from Korea. Conflicts that revolved around whether or not to accept the new religion were won by pro-Buddhist factions. This period also saw the rise of one of Japan's first statesmen, Shotoku Taishi who is known for building Shitennoji, the first Buddhist temple, his attempts to unify Japan under imperial rule and the formation of Japan's first Constitution.

D. Nara Period (600-784)
This period overlaps with Azuka and is marked by the unification of what can be termed the first Japanese state. Nara was set up as the capital in 710 but only lasted for a little more than seventy years. Envoys began to be sent to China to import more Chinese culture.

E. Heian Period (794-1192)
The capital was moved to what is today called Kyoto, a city fashioned after the Chinese capital Ch'ang-an. The early peaceful and artistic life that centered around the Heian court was replaced by the feud that occurred between the Genji and Heike families. The eventual rise and fall of the Heike clan was followed by Minamoto Yoritomo's rise to prominence and establishment of the new capital at Kamakura which was out of the way and easy to defend.

F. Kamakura Period (1192-1333)
Although the capital was in Kamakura, Kyoto still flourished as the center of culture in Japan and Zen Buddhism developed into the basis of samurai philosophy.

G. Muromachi & Azuchi-Momoyama Periods (1336-1598)
Central authority crumbled and the country was broken down into fiefdoms, each under the control of a feudal lord (daimyo). The Onin War was fought in various parts of Kyoto between 1467 and 1477 and resulted in a weakened Muromachi bakufu. The result was a string of civil wars fought between the feudal lords over territorial disputes.
The first Europeans, a group of Portuguese, arrived and introduced firearms, escalating the fighting between daimyo. Fracisco de Xavier also arrived and tried with limited success to promote Christianity.
Many stone castles were built and Japan was finally unified again through the efforts of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi.

H. Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1867)
The longest lasting dynasty in Japan was the Tokugawa Shogunate, or bakufu, which lasted nearly two hundred and fifty years until the time Admiral Perry's Black Ships finally made their way into Tokyo Bay. This period is marked by the relative peace that was skillfully arranged by Tokugawa Ieyasu under a system by which the various daimyo were required to spend alternate years in Edo (Tokyo) and leave their families as virtual hostages when returning to their domains.
Japan was closed off to outside influences and society was strictly stratified into four levels; samurai, farming peasants, artisans, and merchants. This rigid system was very harsh on the lower levels, but the peace that was achieved helped to raise the overall level of education and workmanship.

I. Meiji Period (1868-1912)
Japan was basically forced open by America's demands and when she did open, Japan was very vulnerable in that much of the progress that had been made in the West was far beyond any technological progress that Japan could have made on her own. Japan's reformers rushed to catch up and sent many exploratory missions abroad for the purpose of finding out how far behind Japan was and helping her in anyway to catch up.
Power was wrestled away from the Tokugawa bakufu and imperial rule was returned under Emperor Meiji. Japan's reformers rushed to catch up with the West, made great strides toward modernization, and made Japan one of the most powerful military forces in the world, defeating China and Russia.

J. Pre World War II
This period includes both the Taisho Era (1912-1926) in which Japan was recognized as one of the Big Five nations of the world and sided with the allies during World War I, and the early Showa Era, which saw the continued industrial and military growth of Japan. Japan's lack of resources and a desire for empire led to the invasion of China and confrontation with America.
Japan's military and political leaders gained great power in Japan and feelings of nationalism rose to obscure the rational advice of Yamamoto Isoroku, the great military leader who had studied in America and believed that Japan's industrial might was no match for that of the United States of America.
Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 and continued fighting until America dropped atomic bombs on both Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the summer of 1945.

K. Post World War II
American occupation followed the end of the Second World War and General Douglas MacArthur aimed to eliminate any possible military threat in Japan. This was accomplished by targeting individuals in the military, politics, and business, that were believed to have pushed Japan into the war.
The occupation ended in 1952 and the economy in Japan was boosted by the need for Japanese goods during the Korean War. The sixties and seventies saw a continued growth and by the 1980s Japan took its place as one of the mightiest economic powers of the world.

2. Historical Figures in Japan
The above mentioned outline of Japanese history is only a starting place and the following list of famous historical figures in Japan is intended to solidify some of the important historical events:

Himiko (? - 248 A.D.) - Ancient queen of the Yamatai koku, Japan's earliest kingdom, famous as the first female ruler. She was believed to have some religious or mystical power.
Shotoku Taishi (574-622) - Known as Japan's first statesman, Shotoku Taishi embraced Confucian and Buddhist ideology and is remembered for his attempts to unite ancient Japan under a form of imperial rule.
Ganjin (c. 8th century) - Chinese priest who suffered great hardship but eventually came from T'ang China at the request of Emperor Shomu to establish a Buddhist confirmation system.
Murasaki Shikibu (970-1040) - Heian period female writer famous for her romantic novel about court life of the time called The Genji Monogatari, or Tale of Genji.
Taira no Kiyomori (1118-1181) - Leader of the powerful Taira clan, Kiyomori restored relative peace after bloody feudal wars.
Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199) - Warrior of the Minamoto clan that finally wrestled power away from the Heike clan and established the capital at Kamakura which was easier to defend. His brother Yoshitsune (1159-1189) is a national hero for his bravery and ill-fated demise.
Emperor Godaigo (1288-1339) - Powerful emperor who was intent on bringing back imperial rule and power away from the military houses.
Senno Rikyu (1522-1591) - Famous tea master who integrated ideas from Zen Buddhism to form Japan's unique tea ceremony and flower arrangement styles.
Francisco de Xavier (1506-1552) - introduced Christianity to Japan.
Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) - One of the strongest Daimyo, known for his efforts to unite Japan under his rule.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598) - One of Oda Nobunaga's retainers, this great warrior of common background continued the work of his master and was successful in finally uniting Japan.
Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) - This first Shogun of the Tokugawa Period, Ieyasu set up the longest lasting dynasty in Japan. Also, he closed Japan to outside influences, stratified society and brought about peace through his skillful maneuver of requiring his rivals to spend alternate years under his watchful eye.
Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1725) - probably the most proliferate early writer, well-known for his numerous plays that are performed in both kabuki and bunraku.
Matsuo Basho (1644-1694) - Haiku poet who refined the art form and used it as a medium for picturing nature and life in brief, metaphorical phrases.
Suzuki Harunobu (1724-1770) - One of the most well-known wood-block artists who is famous for multi-colored wood-block printing of many notable works.
Sharaku (fl. 1794) - Another famous Edo-period painter who's ukiyoe paintings of human figures caught the attention of the west.
Saigo Takamori (1828-1877) - Soldier and former samurai from the southern part of Japan who wanted a return to former ideals and who led a rebellion against the central authority of Japan, who he saw as weakening.
Ito Hirofumi (1841-1909) - Remembered for his tireless efforts to modernize Japan, he eventually became the first Prime Minister.
Lafcadio Hearn (1850-1904) - Given the name Koizumi Yakumo, this European writer took up residence in Japan and is famous for his extensive writing set in Japan.
Natsume Soseki (1867-1916) - Meiji era novelist known for his popular stories such as Botchan.
Tojo Hideki (1884-1943) - Military leader and eventual Prime Minister who's confrontational character helped push Japan toward war with America.
Yamashita Isoroku (1884-1943) - Brilliant naval officer who advised against attacking America, but who was successful in building Japan's naval fleet to its mightiest.

The above list is in no way comprehensive and I have had to leave out numerous famous emperors, priests, artists, politicians, etc. Still, I hope this brief introduction catches the reader's interest and plants a seed for further study.

3. Culture Awareness
One area that is often overlooked by language teachers is their own awareness of their student's culture. I have seen this syndrome in Japan time and time again. Teachers are either so intent on making money that they have no time to learn about Japan's interesting culture and history. Other teachers are just ethnocentric or too worried about teaching their own culture and sometimes values.
My own experience has shown that students can express themselves better about things they know. This often includes historic events and figures from Japan. It is not necessary to be a Japanese culture major, but a little background can help a teacher pull out more of the student's knowledge of the target language and this will build confidence. More importantly, it will show students that you, the teacher, are genuinely interested in them, their culture and history.
Ignorance in this area is sometimes overlooked, but never forgotten and students will always believe that you either not interested or not fully educated. The following is a broad overview that I believe will help give new teachers with little background knowledge of Japan a bit of insight that may help them in the classroom.

A. Arts
1. Tea Ceremony (chanoyu or sado) - The way of tea. An aesthetic pastime in which powdered tea is served in a ceremonial yet artistic way. Largely influenced by the ideas of Zen Buddhism, the tea ceremony cultivates a sense of inner tranquillity, and the ideal frame of mind toward nature and man. The fundamental spirit of the tea ceremony is exemplified in the expression "harmony, reverence, purity and tranquillity." Thus, the traditional Japanese art of serving tea is aimed at attaining enlightenment through mental composure as well as acquiring elegant manners and etiquette.
2. Flower Arrangement (ikebana or kado) - The way of flower arrangement. Kado is more philosophical and spiritual than ikebana and focuses on the way to pursue and develop mental composure rather than the technique. Both have their origins in Buddhism.
3. Calligraphy (shodo) - The method of writing with a Japanese brush and sumi or dark Japanese-style India ink. It is regarded as an art as well as a means of communication. The beauty of the written characters can be fully realized only when they are written with the whole mind and body.
4. Classical Dance (nihonbuyo) - The traditional Japanese-style dance which has developed over the years and been practiced by geisha and maiko as an art form and for entertainment. Originally, dance was performed for the native gods, but gradually entered the mainstream.

B. Martial Arts and Sports
1. Karate - A Japanese martial art of unarmed self-defense. It was introduced to Okinawa from China and gradually became a unique art of combat. A karate master can easily stop an attacker using only his bare hands, elbows, knees, and feet as weapons. A variety of blows can be struck using these parts of the body. This martial art has caught on around the world.
2. Kendo - The Japanese martial art of swordsmanship or fencing. In a kendo match, the two contestants equip themselves with protective armor for effectively hitting either the head, trunk, or forearm, or stabbing the neck. The first contestant to score two out of three points is the winner.
3. Judo - Another Japanese martial art in which the hands instead of weapons are used. It is based on utilizing the strength of the opponent to one's own advantage. It emphasizes physical conditioning and bans harmful throws and blows except in dangerous situations.
4. Aikido - A martial art of weaponless self-defense, similar to judo. The contestant tries to stay far from his opponent, never giving him a chance to get a hold, the idea being to throw him to the floor or pin him down by gripping his wrist or elbow joint.
5. Sumo - A traditional style of wrestling indigenous to Japan and now the national sport. The sumo wrestlers wear only loincloths, called mawashi, and have their hair tied in a topknot. They perform very formal and stylized rituals prior to charging their opponent. The object is to force the opponent to the ground or out of the ring, called dohyo.
6. Baseball - This sport has long been a national pastime and the annual high school tournament is a major event.

C. Proverbs
Knowing a few Japanese proverbs may useful in that you can use them in the classroom to encourage students to explain them and their meanings to you or each other in English. This is not an easy task in some cases and students are challenged to use all their target language skills to complete the task. Proverbs may also be useful in teaching Japanese students English proverbs or idioms.

Kobo nimo fude no ayamari (Even Koobo makes mistakes with his writing brush) Koobo Daishi, as previously mentioned, was an eminent priest who was known for his diligence and perfection. This proverb uses his name to say that everybody makes mistakes.

Saru mo ki kara ochiru (Even a monkey falls from a tree) This proverb is well known and means of course that even skillful people sometimes make mistakes.

Goo ni irite wa goo ni shitagai (When in a village, follow the villagers) This of course means, when in Rome, do as the Romans do. This is very useful knowledge for the language teacher in a foreign country as well.

Fukusui bon ni kaerazu (Spilt water never returns to the bowl) This is close enough to the English proverb, it is no use crying over spilt milk, that it almost doesn't need mention.

Nito omono wa itto oezu (If you run after two hares, you will catch neither) This is rough equivalent of to fall between two stools.

D. English Loan Words and Strange use of English Phrases
This area of study could keep researchers busy for years. English phrases that baffle or confuse are in no short supply. You can find examples on cans of ice coffee, on donut boxes, on T-shirts and bags. Be ready for bewilderment and if you intend to try and explain them, good luck.
Japanese English is another area that can cause smiles, frowns and looks of bewilderment for new arrivals. Some of the better specimens that I have encountered are:

Catch Phone - used for call waiting

Oven Toaster - turned around and used to mean Toaster Oven. Fried Potato - used for french fries

Sharp Pencil - Mechanical Pencil

Lover - used instead of boyfriend or girlfriend

Conclusion
In closing, I would like to add tat note should also be made of the danger of bringing too many cultural prejudices to the classroom. This is a very difficult area to understand for many and you could stumble without ever realizing it.
Understanding the Japanese and their culture may help in that you can avoid areas that may cause trouble or embarrassment or at least have a little more insight into your student's biases, prejudices or tendencies.
Much of this comes with time and my intention is not to make new teachers paranoid. Much of this will be learned naturally in the course of your stay.
I have probably left out lots of important facts or notions, but my intention is to hit on a few of the things that I have learned during my stay and which have been helpful.

Part Ten - Expected Changes